Article 4 of 4 · 1978–1979
1978–1979: Khomeini & Iran’s Islamic Revolution
Individuals: Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989), Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1919–1980) & Mehdi Bazargan (1907–1995)
A broad movement ended Iran’s monarchy; a struggle over the new constitution concentrated authority in religious institutions.
Many opponents, one collapsing monarchy
In 1978 Iran’s monarchy faced a crisis that could not be contained by changes of ministers. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi had promoted modernization and economic development, but his security apparatus, including SAVAK, suppressed dissent. Inflation, inequality, resentment over foreign influence and anger at political restrictions helped bring different groups into opposition. Religious activists, constitutional liberals, workers, students and leftist organizations joined protests, although they disagreed deeply about what should replace the shah.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini had opposed the shah for years and spoke to supporters from exile. Strikes disrupted the oil industry, processions drew large crowds, and the government’s use of force deepened the confrontation. On 16 January 1979, the shah left Iran. Khomeini returned to Tehran on 1 February to an enormous public welcome. On 11 February, the old government’s resistance collapsed. The monarchy had fallen, but the revolution’s coalition had not agreed on one model of freedom or political authority.
The provisional government and the constitutional struggle
Khomeini appointed Mehdi Bazargan to head a provisional government in February. Bazargan favored a more limited constitutional order; revolutionary committees and religious organizations increasingly exercised authority outside normal ministries. On 30–31 March 1979, voters were asked whether Iran should become an Islamic Republic. A large reported majority favored the change, but the ballot did not provide a detailed choice among competing constitutional models.
The central dispute then concerned the powers of religious jurists. A draft constitution was reshaped in an elected Assembly of Experts to include velayat-e faqih, or guardianship by a leading Islamic jurist. The December 1979 constitutional referendum approved the new framework. The system included elections and public offices, but ultimate authority over crucial state matters was placed with a supreme religious leader. Islamist politics here referred to a specific project for organizing state power around a particular interpretation of Shiʿi religious authority; it did not describe every Muslim’s beliefs.
Consequences that followed the victory
The new state removed the monarchy and established institutions that have endured. It also restricted rival political groups, closed critical publications and used revolutionary courts and coercive organizations against opponents. Women, secular campaigners, leftists and dissenting religious voices disagreed over the reach of the new rules. Some citizens who had opposed the shah discovered that victory over one authoritarian order had not secured the freedoms they expected from its successor.
On 4 November 1979 militants seized the United States embassy in Tehran, starting a hostage crisis that lasted 444 days. Bazargan resigned shortly afterward. This confrontation increased the leverage of hard-line revolutionary groups and damaged Iran’s external relationships. Iran’s experience illustrates why it is necessary to distinguish a movement’s capacity to overturn a government from its record of sharing power, protecting rights and maintaining accountable institutions once it has won.
Dates & decisions
- 1978: Strikes and demonstrations against the shah intensify.
- 16 January 1979: Mohammad Reza Pahlavi leaves Iran.
- 1–11 February 1979: Khomeini returns; the monarchy falls.
- 30–31 March 1979: The Islamic Republic referendum takes place.
- December 1979: A constitution establishing the guardianship of a leading jurist is approved.
Historical references
These references document key events and dates; this article is newly written and is not copied from the sources.