2011–2013: Egypt elects Morsi, then the army removes him

An election after the uprising

Large demonstrations ended President Hosni Mubarak’s rule in February 2011. Egyptians who had shared the streets did not agree about how the new state should be governed. Secular liberals, leftists, Muslim Brotherhood supporters, other Islamist groups and military leaders argued over elections, constitutional rights and the place of religion in law.

Mohamed Morsi, the candidate backed by the Muslim Brotherhood’s political movement, won the 2012 presidential election. His victory was a significant break from Mubarak’s rule. It did not settle the place of the army, judiciary or opposition in the new political system. Brotherhood leaders presented electoral success as a mandate to govern; opponents feared that a narrow majority would let one political current define the constitution for everyone.

A decree triggers another confrontation

On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration shielding some of his decisions from judicial review. His supporters argued that the measure would protect the transition from obstruction by old-regime institutions. Opponents saw a president claiming authority without effective checks. Judges, activists and ordinary citizens joined protests. A controversial constitution won approval in a referendum the following month amid serious political divisions.

Economic strain and complaints about government performance added to the anger. Demonstrations against Morsi grew in June 2013. His opponents included people worried about religion in politics and people simply frustrated with unemployment or poor services. These were not all the same movement.

The army wins the confrontation

On 3 July 2013, the military, led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, removed Morsi and suspended the constitution. The intervention ended the tenure of an elected president rather than resolving disputes by another election. In August security forces violently cleared large pro-Morsi sit-ins, killing hundreds; published estimates vary. The authorities then prosecuted or detained many Brotherhood supporters. Some armed groups also carried out attacks in the wider period of upheaval. Egypt’s political crisis exposed abuses by both elected and unelected authorities and the high cost to civilians when institutions cannot handle disputes without force.